Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 23

Contextual investigation Example As a chief of the organization, my first activity will be to have a conventional conversing with Fred about his activities and the outcomes of his activities to the organization. I will likewise accentuate of moral qualities and regard for other people, which is the best degree of trustworthiness in any association. As a major aspect of his working condition terms, one essential commitment to the organization is to exhibit elevated level of uprightness and follow the channels of airing his perspectives as opposed to causing deliberate deferrals and mistakes in his work. I will ultimately consider bringing his pay up in request to guarantee that he is additionally inspired (Yin 34). All together for the bank to legitimize its reactions on the claims sent to the EEOC by Ruth, it needs to give proof that there were not segregation in the excusal of Ruth Wittman based on her shading or some other unjust premise. The principal report that the bank should present to the EEOC is the non-appearance record of Ruth; this will likewise help in concealing light on the claims that she was continually missing and late. Another archive that the back ought to give is the record of all other employees’ truancy just as occupation allotment plot. Another crucial report that the bank ought to submit is the 54 separate guiding event of Ruth just as other directing events of her associate so as to legitimize that its activities were lawful. On the off chance that I were the EEOC District Director, I would initially break down the introduced reports about the non-appearance and lateness of Ruth Wittman. I would then contrast it and different workers of the bank and note the recurrence of the nonappearance and lateness of different representatives too. I will likewise request the bank to demonstrate that it followed the lawful system for excusal of a worker. This will incorporate the arrangement of a notice letter and being given the excusal letter inside the necessary timeframe before overseeing the excusal procedure. On the off chance that the excusal was done in an unlawful manner, I

Speech Com -- essays research papers

Allurement: Have you viewed the news of late? Regardless of whether you haven’t, you still most likely have heard something about the questions in and around Jerusalem. These questions have been continuing for quite a long time. Various gatherings of individuals have battled to control Jerusalem throughout the years however we are going to concentrate on the present dominant part parties from today. From the data I found on CNN.com and the Jerusalem Post, I reasoned that the Israelis and the Palestinians are presently battling about who should control Jerusalem and how it ought to be run. The serious issues between these to bunches began in 1948 when the British Mandate parceled Palestine into independent Muslim and Jewish states. Presently, Palestine is lion's share Muslim while Israel is generally Jewish. All things considered, under the Mandate, Jerusalem was given to the Jews to control by the UN as a repayment for what their kin experienced during WWII. This made the Pale stinians frantic on the grounds that their third holiest mosque is presently in an outside run state. The Jews are distraught in light of the fact that now they control the land however cant do what they need. They need to manufacture another Hebrew Temple of Solomon to supplant the one that was demolished a quite a while prior. The huge issue is that the specific area of where they need to put the sanctuary is in the specific area where the Muslim’s mosque is found. That’s not all they are quarreling over nonetheless. They are additionally quarreling over how Jerusalem ought to be represented. Israelis need to keep it free for all religion...

Mobile Learning Example

Mobile Learning Example Mobile Learning â€" Assignment Example > Integrating M Learning in Education SystemsAbstractThe need for a better method of carrying out studies has seen the growth of information technologies to encourage the use of modern products to access information. Traditional forms of education were seen to be biased on students who wanted to learn overseas. It was also disadvantageous to students who had disability problems including physical impairments or vision problems. Other students were so busy to attend to normal lectures an all this led to development of modern education system in schools. This paper is going to compare learning methods in the traditional society and the modern society. Main focus will be given on modern methods of study, how they have been implemented in the modern study and its advantages to those using the method of study. It will also show the progression from traditional methods of learning to the most recent developments in research, seeking to promote the use of mobile learning in institutions as a more effective way of learning in the digital world. IntroductionThe use of modern mobile technology has replaced the use of traditional methods of learning. Traditionally learning was a must for all students who wanted to excel in that the students were monitored by their teachers on a daily basis and their progress noted. It made sure that all students in school attended lecture classes without fail (Motiwalla, 2007, pp 582). This method of study was not supported by many students because they did not have freedom to do what they wanted in school. The traditional learning system also made it hard for overseas students who were not in a position to attend classes because of financial strain or distance barrier. These problems led to introduction of modern methods of learning including use of information technology, e-learning and m-learning systems. The review part of study will feature on traditional methods of learning, its disadvantages and how the mobile-learning were impl emented in the modern education systems. It will also focus on how the use of m-learning has contributed in boosting education systems over the world. Lastly, the study will give recommendations and conclusion concerning integrations of m-learning methods in the education system. Historical Background to LearningTraditionally, learning took place in a classroom or a space set aside for learning activities (Motiwalla, 2007, pp 582). Learning was conducted under trees, as they did not have decent classrooms for studying. The whole idea of a school was to bring the communities together by promoting unity among the children and the elders of the society. This social connection was very important in a person’s development and especially in a child’s development. The students were educated on how to handle different people with different personalities within and outside their community. The teachers interacted freely with the students face to face and this built a good relation ship between them. It also provided room for teachers and lecturers to be able to assess the students’ progress over time. This method of learning allowed the teachers to identify areas of weakness in a student, early enough to be helped, before it became critical. The students with learning problems received required attention by the teachers (Motiwalla, 2007).

Single Sex Schools Are Effective Or Ineffective - 1337 Words

Single Sex Schools Affect Many People Have you ever heard of single sex schools? If yes, do you think it’s a good idea? Single sex schools are schools that either have all male students or all female students only. Many people have different kinds of opinions towards these types of schools. There have been many debates on whether single-sex schools are effective or ineffective. These schools have different effects on people. Single sex schools should be discontinued because it will affect students in their relationships, their learning skills, their emotions as well as be a problem in segregation between schools. Single sex schools have been around for many years now. According to Janice Streitmatter, the author of the book â€Å"For Girls Only: Making a Case For Single-sex Schools† informs that single-sex schools were present before for women’s arts but now they focus to provide experience for the competitive world. (Page 25) These schools help provide s tudents with a distraction free zone to focus more in their studies. When students are at school they have nothing to distract them because they don’t have their â€Å"crush† there to keep them from paying attention. Single-sex schools have proven to be effective according to many researchers. Janice Streitmatter, a researcher, shows a research where students who attended single-sex schools always score higher in their exams than students who attend coed schools. In another research she explains the outcomes onShow MoreRelatedSingle Sex Education Essay700 Words   |  3 PagesSingle-Sex education has existed since the beginning of education itself but, it has recently reemerged in the US under the pretense that it will improve school environments and help children learn better. According to psychological studies this is not the case. There is little difference between boys and girls in terms of ways they learn, and their neurodevelopment. Separating children als o does not allow for socialization between different genders. This conflicts with children’s social skillsRead MoreShould SIngle Sex Schools be Allowed?906 Words   |  4 PagesShould Single Sex Schools Be Allowed? Having single-sex schools is a practice that has been around the nineteenth century separating male and female students which practically aims towards secondary education and higher education. Many ideas of single-sex education are advocated on the basis of tradition. It is said that it helps students achieve more academically based on several educational researches, but should high schools be separated by a single sex? I mean single sex schooling is not a magicRead MoreEssay on Single-Sex Education: Separate but Efficient?1547 Words   |  7 PagesHave schools been teaching their students the wrong way for years? Apparently, coeducation schools have not been as sensitive about genders as single-gender schools have been. It is necessary for schools to be geared toward certain genders because both male students and female students learn differently. Due to the fact that the biology of male and female students is an immense contributor to these differences, it needs to be understoo d and exercised. Differences of the two genders can be usedRead MoreThe Separation Of Sex Education1012 Words   |  5 Pagesteach as well as single sex teaching. Meaning the separation of sex education for boys and girls. Comprehensive is similar to an open door were as abstinence only is a one way street no option to derail. Many states have different laws and regulations as to what method they can teach as well as single sex teaching. Meaning the separation of sex education for boys and girls. â€Å"22 states and the District of Columbia require public schools teach sex education (20 of which mandate sex education and HIVRead MoreWhy Studying in an All-Female College is a Bad Idea Essays721 Words   |  3 Pagesanalyze how this model also applies to a specific gender group in an academic environment. Female colleges carries with the consequence of promoting a physical and academic competition among their students. According to article â€Å"Body Image in a Singles Sex† (Spence, 2013), there is a high percentage of female students concerned about their body appearance by establishing a high social comparison among them than coed- college students. This situation creates the first competitive issue between studentsRead MoreInformative Speech Essay example1230 Words   |  5 Pagespersuade my aud ience into being in favor of distributing contraceptives (condoms, birth control pills, spermicides, etc.) in high schools. Thesis statement: In order to explain why contraceptives are becoming such a necessity in schools today, I will share how teen parenthood is being glorified, reasons for such an increase in teenage pregnancies, and how effective distributing contraceptives would be. INTRODUCTION I. Attention getter: (show slide of pregnant girls) How many of youRead MoreKentuckys Youth and Teen Smoking1020 Words   |  5 Pagesteenager can continue a nicotine addiction for another day. Smokers in Massachusetts, however, can expect to pay over ten dollars for a single pack of smokes. At ten dollars per pack an average smoker in Massachusetts can expect to pay over $3,000 a year. This is one of many reasons why Massachusettss YRBS rating (a scale to rate the amount of smokers in high schools) is a low 16.0, giving Massachusetts the 10th lowest score out of 43 states rated. Kentucky, however, came in last on the YRBS rankingsRead MoreIn Modern Society, An Enormous Amount Of Pressure Is Placed1651 Words   |  7 Pagesan enormous amount of pressure is placed on education. It is seen as an entity to allow one to grow and succeed in the world. In the United States, every child has access to free public education from kindergarten to 12th grade, regardless of race, sex or fi nancial status; some lobbyists are even pushing for free higher education. To live in a world where free public education was not a given, or only accessible by boys, society would radically be different. However, while public education is nowRead MoreTeen Pregnancy And The United States1414 Words   |  6 Pagesthe tax payers money on this issue but it was ineffective because of the method they chose. Fortunately, this approach has ended and a new approach began. The new method of preventing teen pregnancies has research proving that it will in fact decline the number of unwanted pregnancies. The research done by an organization, called the Future of Sex Education, used over 50 polls to come up with three key points of good sex education (Melby 5). Good sex education protects the health and safety of youngRead More1 Family Health Assessment for the Nur1678 Words   |  7 Pagesfamily’s interview with two nursing diagnosis and care plans developed to promote a brighter healthier future for the family. The Family The family is a white Hispanic first and second generation American low middle class that consists of a 43 year old single mother, a 13 and 7 year old daughters that were conceived out of wedlock from a long term extramarital affair. The father is only sporadically in the picture accounting for visits of 3 to 5 hours once a month. Values and Health Perceptions Health

The Negro Movement - 1364 Words

Looking back at the history of the culture that has risen from the ashes; one may be quite surprised just how far the African American culture has come. The progression of the African American culture is indeed one to be proud of. From cotton fields to Harlem, â€Å"The New Negro Movement†, sparked a sense of cultural self-determination, with a yearning to strive for economic, political equality, and civic participation. This was a movement that sparked a wide range of advancements in the African American culture. Leaving footprints of great individuals as well as set a path way for future generations to follow; setting a trend for Black greatness. After the American Civil War there was a spark within the African American culture†¦show more content†¦Additionally, there were other aspects of Black greatness emerging from oppression. â€Å"†¦Through their artistry, the literature of this period helped to facilitate a transformation from the psychology of th e â€Å"Old Negro† (characterized by an implied inferiority of the post-Reconstruction era when black artists often did not control the means of production or editorial prerogatives) to the â€Å"New Negro† (characterized as self-assertive, racially conscious, articulate, and, for the most part, in charge of what they produced). Landmark texts that marked this transformation and encouraged increased exploration of African American experience through literature included The Book of American Negro Poetry (1922), edited by James Weldon Johnson and The New Negro (1925) by Locke. The short-lived literary magazine Fire!! (1926) also had a significant impact on the literary production because it represented the efforts of younger African American writers (such as Hughes and Hurston) to claim their own creativity apart from older artists (such as DuBois and James Weldon Johnson), as well as to establish autonomy from potential white exploiters...† (Trudier Harris-Lopez, â€Å"Forward† Harlem Renaissance, Volume I. Janet Witalec, project editor. Farmington Hill, MI: Gale, 2003 Call and Response: The Riverside Anthology of the African American Literary Tradition. Ed. Patricia LigginsShow MoreRelatedThe Movement Of The Negro World1407 Words   |  6 Pages at the age of 28, and cultivated the American Negro through his oratory that is seen as the awaken of Black Nationalism. Garvey’s work does not end in America, he’s efforts were world-wide but not limited to Africa to Nova Scotia, and South America. It has been stated that Garvey raised more money and grew a membership than any other Negro organization to date. Coined as the Black Moses, Garvey’s stated â€Å"I know no national boundary where the Negro is concerned. The whole world is my province untilRead MoreThe Harlem Renaissance : The New Negro Movement1008 Words   |  5 PagesThe New Negro Movement, also known as the Harlem Renaissance, spanned in the 1920s in wh ich African American culture attained unparalleled political and social recognition despite the ongoing horrors of being black in America. New Negro was coined during the Harlem Renaissance indicating a more open advocacy of dignity and a refusal to submit to Jim Crow laws and racial segregation. The movement weakened the notion of the African diaspora as an event of forced migration isolated in the past andRead MoreThe Harlem Renaissance : The New Negro Movement843 Words   |  4 Pagesknown as the New Negro Movement, was an important time period for African American culture in the United States. It was an innovating period where many unknown artists became prominent for their talent and ethnic heritage, and brought upon many new connections between races. As a cultural movement, the Harlem Renaissance brought changes to America that would have long term effects on how art is created, viewed, and accepted. â€Å"The Renaissance was more than a literary or artistic movement, it po ssessedRead MoreThe Harlem Renaissance : The New Negro Movement1459 Words   |  6 Pagestheir way to freedom. Most of them migrated to New York, particularly in the district of Harlem (Bolarinwa). Harlem was characterized as â€Å"not merely the largest Negro community in the world, but the first concentration in history of so many diverse elements of Negro life† (Bolarinwa). The Harlem Renaissance, known to be â€Å"The New Negro Movement† (Bolarinwa), gave spark to the African Americans to emerge their new lifestyle with works that were rooted in their own culture, rather than imitating the culturesRead MoreThe New Negro Movement, By Zora Neale Hurston1720 Words   |  7 Pages1, in a relatively small section in New York City and ended during the aftermath of The Great Depression. This was by far one of the most influential movements in African American culture. African Americans took pride in themselves and in their culture and wanted to showcase this through fr eedom of expression. Self-love in the â€Å"New Negro Movement† was monumental as it spread not only through Harlem, NY but also throughout the world. Innovators such as Zora Neale Hurston who was a novelist, anthropologistRead MoreAaron Douglas, The New Negro Movements Essay1071 Words   |  5 PagesAmerican could draw, paint or sculpt something so beautiful. According to historyoftheharlemrenaissance.weebly.com, Between 1920-1930 and outburst of creativity among African American occurred in every aspect of art. This cultural movement became known as the New Negro Movement later the Harlem renaissance. The art today isnt really memorable but during that time it was, it expressed how the people in Harlem were feeling and they told a story through their artwork. All the different artists had differentRead More`` Walls Of Jericho ``999 Words   |  4 Pagesago. But the complexion of the place is theirs, not mine. I? Why, I am actually stared at, I frequently feel uncomfortable and out of place, and when I go out on the floor to dance I am lost in a sea of white faces†¦Time was when white people went to Negro cabarets to see how Negroes acted; now Negroes go to these same cabarets to see how white people act.† African-American physician, radiologist, musician and novelist Rudolph Fisher was coupled with the Harlem Renaissance, whose fiction credibly illustratedRead MoreAnalysis of the New Negro Essay1605 Words   |  7 PagesIn the beginning Alain Locke tells us about the â€Å"tide of negro migration.† During this time in a movement known as the Great Migration, thousands of African-Americans also known as Negros left their homes in the South and moved North toward the beach line of big cities in search of employment and a new beginning. As Locke stated, â€Å"the wash and rush of this human tide on the beach line of Northern city centers is to be explained primarily in terms of a new vision of opportunity, of social and economicRead MoreThe Civil Rights Movement : Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.1168 Words   |  5 Pagespositive gains that have been achieved by the civil rights movement. In this speech King provided his audience with several facts on how the people have came a long way from where they began and that the civil rights movement has made a great progress in its struggle for equal treatment under the law. In King s speech, he begins by claiming that they have come a long way from where they began. As he starts to speak about the growth of the Negro community he states, Now let us notice first that we veRead MoreNew Negro Essay984 Words   |  4 PagesThe abolition of slavery in the United States presented southern African Americans with many new opportunities, including the option of relocation in search of better living conditions. The mass movement of black people from the rural areas of the South to the cities of the North, known as the Black Migration, came in the 1890s when black men and women left the south to settle in cities such as Philadelphia and New York, fleeing from the rise of Jim Crowe Laws and searching for work. This migration

Ernest Hemmingway Research Paper Free Essays

Steven Glansberg English Comp II Research Paper 3/28/12 Every writer has his or her own unique style of writing. Writing is such a personal matter that authors have no choice but to get creative. One of the most famous, classic American writers and journalists was Ernest Hemmingway. We will write a custom essay sample on Ernest Hemmingway Research Paper or any similar topic only for you Order Now Ernest Hemmingway had one of the most unique writing styles of all time. His distinctive writing style, characterized by economy and understatement, influenced 20th-century fiction, as did his life of adventure and public image. Ernest Hemingway’s fictional style of writing was successful due to the fact that the characters he presented exhibited authenticity that resonated with his audience. He created characters that would directly relate and grow upon the audience of his work. Ernest Miller Hemmingway was born on July 21st, 1899. He was born and raised in Oak Park, Illinois. Hemmingway led a normal life and after his high school graduation he worked as a reporter for the Kansas City Star. After that job he left for the Italian front where he became an ambulance driver during World War I. Unfortunately Hemmingway was seriously injured during his duty and returned home to the states in less than a year. This over-seas experience during war would later be the basis for his novel â€Å"A Farewell to Arms. † Ernest Hemmingway did most of his literary work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s. His career in writing ended shortly after he won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954. In his career Hemmingway published seven novels, six short story collections, and two non-fiction work. An additional three novels, four collections of short stories, and three non-fiction works were published posthumously. Hemmingway’s first novel was â€Å"The Sun Also Rises†. The New York Times wrote on this novel saying, â€Å"It was a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts most literary English to shame and also no amount of analysis can convey the quality of this novel. † This novel was written in a spare, tightly written prose, which Hemmingway was notorious for. Hemmingway had one of the most distinct styles of writing in all of iterature. Many literature analysts believe that his writing style was influenced by his time spent in World War I. It is also thought that while at war Hemmingway lost his faith in the central institutions of Western civilization. Hemmingway created his own style of writing that reacted against the â€Å"elaborate style† of 19th century writers. By creating a style in which meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silence he was able to create a fiction in which nothing crucial is stated explicitly. He said everything while keeping â€Å"under the radar† per say. That is how the Iceberg Theory came into place with Hemmingway’s writing style. The Iceberg Theory, also know as the Theory of Omission, was a theory that was all about how Hemmingway kept the he facts floating above the â€Å"water† but keeps the supporting structure and symbolism operate out-of-sight just like the structural view of an iceberg. In other words the meaning of a piece is not immediately evident, because the crux of the story lies below the surface, just as most of the mass of a real iceberg similarly lies beneath the surface. In Hemmingway’s novel â€Å"The Art of the Short Story,† he explains, â€Å"A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit. † Hemmingway clearly states that by leaving out obvious facts, you unintentionally strengthen your writing by making your audience think and ask questions about certain topics that you wanted to focus on in the first place. A famous piece of writing by Hemmingway that clearly supports the Iceberg Theory was â€Å"The Old Man and the Sea. † This novel centers upon Santiago, an aging Cuban fisherman who struggles with a giant marlin far out in the Gulf Stream. The plot of this story consists of the aging fisherman Santiago that sails out to see, catches a great white marlin, but then struggles all the way back to shore fighting off sharks to the point where he ends up with nothing but the carcass of the marlin. This story doesn’t seem like it has any literary significance on the surface but if you read between the lines you find out that this novel is a meditation upon youth and age. Even though the protagonist, Santiago, spends little or no time thinking of those terms you can see that the details point towards a struggle between ages. Another story that also has an underlying reflection upon the struggle between ages is â€Å"A Clean Well Lighted Place. † In this novel there is an internal struggle between the young and the older waiter in a restaurant. The struggle between characters in this novel is that the younger waiter thinks that he know more about life and love than the older waiter. Hemmingway doesn’t have the younger waiter come out and directly say he knows more than the older waiter for a specific reason. By not making the younger waiter say that he strengthens that topic because then his audience is now asking themselves questions about the young and old waiter’s feud. In this story Hemmingway used a large portion of dialogue. The reason for this is to create a constant back and forth motion between the two waiters. With this constant back and forth it is much easier to make a comparison between the two waiters. Hemmingway also did something very unique in this story. He used Spanish language in this story to even further the excellence of his language use. Ernest Hemmingway’s writing style can never be recreated or copied by anyone. He knew how to get the most from the least in his writing. He mastered the art of pruning language. Getting ever last drop of language genius out. No one knew how to multiply intensities as well as he did or knew how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth. Unfortunately Ernest Hemmingway committed suicide in the summer of 1961. Even though he is gone his literary legacy lives on through his works still being read and used all around the world. His unique style of writing and his very interesting way of leaving out a topic that was important in order to strengthen his argument will be a great example for other writers even as the years pass. How to cite Ernest Hemmingway Research Paper, Essays

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Social Networks Free Samples

Question: Write a Literature review Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Social Networks in Business. Answer: Research Scope: Before the emergence of social networking the entire organizations were highly dependent on direct offline media vehicles in order to expand the entire business process in various geographical areas. The marketing executives had to put immense effort to promote their brands as well as products in different geographical locations. The influence of modern media has rendered a revolutionary change in the overall growth of business organizations. Large number of business organizations belonging to various sectors has been dependent on the positive aspects of social networks (Baltar Brunet, 2012). As a result, organizations get the opportunities to spread the overall business in various multinational countries. It has also been highlighted that social media network is having some of its negative effects as well. This particular research study focuses to evaluate critically about some of the necessary advantages and disadvantages of social networks for developing the entire business process. While analyzing the business growth of some of the major recognizable organizations such as Coles, Woolworths, JB-Hi-Fi, Tassal it has been observed that social media has left innumerable contribution for enhancing the market potentiality (Picazo-Vela, Gutirrez-Martnez Luna-Reyes, 2012). At the same time, it has also been noticed that social networks are very much restricted within a specific age group of people. Social media tools are not effective enough for drawing the attention of every group of people. However, the impact of social networks is possessed with major disadvantages as well. Research objectives: To evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of social networks for business development To understand the factors that highly affect on implementing social networks within business organizations Comparative analysis: Social network at the current time is World phenomenon that millions of people tend to use for maintaining their promotional activities effectively. Social network is the broader way of communication that enables the people to make an effective communication beyond going the regional area. Aljabre (2012) opined that after the emergence of social networks large number of business organizations has enhanced their marketing activities and sales promotion widely. On the other hand, some of the eminent scholars have opposed the entire opinion of previous scholars. This particular part has focused to make an in-depth analysis on how social networks affect the entire business process of organizations. Overview of various social networks associated in business: Social network is considered as one of the most effective promotional tools with the help of which people from different geographical markets can be attracted in products and service by using numerous business strategies and policies. Among the most effective social networks the importance of social media, public forum official websites are most prominent. The entire domain of social media is wide in range that enables an individual person to make connection with people from different geographical markets (Leonardi, Huysman Steinfield, 2013). The report of market survey implies that the rate of social media is growing in astronomical rate. Facebook has reached the stock exchange at the $104 billion. People belonging to different cultural backgrounds as well as religious attitudes can communicate with other in order to know the current trend. Bryman and Bell (2015) stated that business organizations do not have to face difficulties in preparing market strategy and policy. Therefore, the social media is very much familiar to gather necessary data regarding the current market demand as well as their expectation form the service providers. Public forum can also be considered as one of the most effective tools of social networks with the help of which both the service providers and service users can directly maintain conversation with each other. Batjargal et al. (2013) stated that the customer service executives get an in-depth overview about the service process by interacting with the customers. On the other hand, the customers get the opportunity to place their necessary desires and expectation. As a result, public forums keep the overall internal communication between service users and service providers stronger. Therefore, this particular social networking site is most effective to gather necessary feedback from the customers. Rothaermel (2015) stated that among various aspects of social networking tools social media can be recognized as one of the most effective channels for business promotion. A particular business organization after launching a new product can maintain their promotional activities by using social media pages such as facebook, instagram and so many. Target customers get the scope to provide necessary opinion about the brand reliability and their expectation. On the other hand, social media tools enable the customers to conduct market survey as well (Zikmund et al., 2013). Based on the number of likes the business evaluators get an overall response about the future of their brands as well as services. Various disadvantages of social networks: In order to implement social networking in marketing and sales promotions business organizations have faced major difficulties while running the business process. Sashi (2012) opined that technological efficiency is one of the most important reasons due to which people have to face innumerable difficulties in communicating with each other. Every single organizational employee is not flexible enough with the advancement of technology. While facing any sudden technical barriers employees have to face challenges to overcome the sudden crisis. As a result, the entire communication between the service providers and the service users become demolished. Chu and Du (2013) opined that the business organizations which are only dependent on social networking have to face innumerable difficulties in maintaining the sales promotional activities systematically. However, in order to overcome such kind of barrier, the business organizations have decided to provide an effective training and developme nt session to the employees for enhancing their technological skills and competencies. An effective training session is highly important for every single employee in order to overcome the sudden technical barriers (Gronum, Verreynne Kastelle, 2012). In order to implement social networks organizational managers have to use advanced technology. The use of advanced technology enables the service providers to make the entire promotional activities rapid and systematic. However, most of the business organizations fail to implement advanced technology due to the lack of sufficient economic strength. Whenever the entire business process is dependent on the effective technology the business employers have to appoint an efficient IT expert. Therefore, financial strength is highly important in order to maintain the entire promotional activities by using the tools of social networks. Bruhn, Schoenmueller and Schfer (2012) stated that social networks are primarily applicable for the young generations who are very much accustomed with the advancement of technology. In order to draw the attention of different age group of people the business experts have to focus on implementing offline media tools as well based on which customers belonging t o different age group can be attracted towards the entire business process. As opined by Patino, Pitta and Quinones (2012) opined that social networks are effective only for conducting international business promotions. In order to expand the entire business in the regional market direct marketing, hoardings, banners, electronic media are also effective gaining organizational image and reputation. People belonging to different geographical markets should be flexible with advanced technology and social networks for getting an in-depth overview about the new products and services launched by the business organizations. Several conspicuous scholars have provided numerous opinions regarding the negative effects of social networks for further business progress. Impact of social network on business: While evaluating the impact of social networks, the authors have highlighted both the positive and negative effect of social networks on the development of business process. The entire realm of social network is vast based on which people belonging to different geographical locations can maintain an effective communication in order to gain brand identity. Social networks are having a major impact in influencing the consumers buying behavior. With the dynamic progress of business process the needs and demands of the customers are changing gradually. Eriksson and Kovalainen (2015) opined that customers before using a specific product tends to collect an in-depth overview about the brand reliability. Social media is the most effective business tools with the help of which the customers can get in-depth overview about the brands and the services of business organization. In addition, social networks are not restricted within a specific regional market. People belonging to remote areas ca n easily use the tools of social networks in order to gather data and information regarding the specific products. Therefore, it is undeniable that business experts in order to expand their entire wings in different geographical markets should use social media tools for business promotions. At the same time, social networks are possessed with some of its major negative impacts as well. In order to place the brand in the international market the impact of social media is truly undeniable. At the same time, customers belonging to different regional markets do not want to use social media for purchasing their products. In this kind of situation direct marketing, sales promotion are the most effective tools based on which the service providers would be able to collect direct feedback from the customers. Borgatti, Everett and Johnson (2013) stated that direct marketing is highly effective in gathering an immediate response from the customers. In addition, in order to maintain promotional activities with the help of social media the marketing executives have to be accustomed with different languages and cultures to treat the people of various cultural backgrounds with equal respect and dignity. This particular study has provided an in-depth analysis on how social media tools are possessed with several advantages and disadvantages. Quality and currency of article and sources: While evaluating the entire research work some of the scholars have expressed their opinion on the overall service process. The articles that have been used throughout the entire study are possessed with relevant data and information that helped to enhance the quality of research work. The articles are current and updated enough to be used within the literature review part. While conducting a journal article the study has focused to use appropriate research methodology for collecting necessary data and information. As a result, the entire research literature review part has been conducted systematically due to the relevance of the articles used over here. Gap in the literature review: Before conducting an effective literature review every research work has to focus on highlighting the research background along with its clear and in-depth research aim. This particular study has not provided the research background properly. As a result, the study is devoid of highlighting the actual purpose of conducting the entire research work. On the other hand, literature review has focus to make an in-depth critical analysis on the necessary advantages and disadvantages of social networks in business growth. People belonging to different geographical markets cannot get detailed overview about the products without having the presence of social networks. In the entire literature review scholars have focused to highlight both the positive and negative impacts of social media tools. The objective of this specific research work is to provide some major recommendations as well on how to overcome the barriers of implementing social networks within the business organization. Throughou t the entire study recommendations have not been provided. Conclusion: The entire study has provided in-depth overview about the advantages and disadvantages of social networks in enhancing the entire business performance. Several eminent scholars have provided numerous points of views regarding the impact of social media tools for promoting the business in the realm of global business process. After evaluating the entire study it can be concluded that social media tools are possessed with some of the major positive as well as negative aspects. The study has highlighted all the disadvantages of social networks. However, while running the entire business wings in market, every business experts aim to place their brand globally to grab the attention of global consumers. Therefore, social networks are the only effective vehicle with the help of which business experts can stretch their wings in different geographical areas in order to gain organizational recognition. Reference Aljabre, A. (2012). Cloud computing for increased business value.International Journal of Business and Social Science,3(1). Baltar, F., Brunet, I. (2012). Social research 2.0: virtual snowball sampling method using Facebook.internet Research,22(1), 57-74. Batjargal, B., Hitt, M. A., Tsui, A. S., Arregle, J. L., Webb, J. W., Miller, T. L. (2013). Institutional polycentrism, entrepreneurs' social networks, and new venture growth.Academy of Management Journal,56(4), 1024-1049. Borgatti, S. P., Everett, M. G., Johnson, J. C. (2013).Analyzing social networks. SAGE Publications Limited. Bruhn, M., Schoenmueller, V., Schfer, D. B. (2012). Are social media replacing traditional media in terms of brand equity creation?.Management Research Review,35(9), 770-790. Bryman, A., Bell, E. (2015).Business research methods. Oxford University Press, USA. Chu, S. K. W., Du, H. S. (2013). Social networking tools for academic libraries.Journal of librarianship and information science,45(1), 64-75. Dabner, N. (2012). Breaking Groundin the use of social media: A case study of a university earthquake response to inform educational design with Facebook.The Internet and Higher Education,15(1), 69-78. Eriksson, P., Kovalainen, A. (2015).Qualitative Methods in Business Research: A Practical Guide to Social Research. Sage. Gronum, S., Verreynne, M. L., Kastelle, T. (2012). The role of networks in small and medium?sized enterprise innovation and firm performance.Journal of Small Business Management,50(2), 257-282. Leonardi, P. M., Huysman, M., Steinfield, C. (2013). Enterprise social media: Definition, history, and prospects for the study of social technologies in organizations.Journal of Computer?Mediated Communication,19(1), 1-19. Patino, A., Pitta, D. A., Quinones, R. (2012). Social media's emerging importance in market research.Journal of Consumer Marketing,29(3), 233-237. Picazo-Vela, S., Gutirrez-Martnez, I., Luna-Reyes, L. F. (2012). Understanding risks, benefits, and strategic alternatives of social media applications in the public sector.Government information quarterly,29(4), 504-511. Rothaermel, F. T. (2015).Strategic management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Sashi, C. M. (2012). Customer engagement, buyer-seller relationships, and social media.Management decision,50(2), 253-272. Zikmund, W. G., Babin, B. J., Carr, J. C., Griffin, M. (2013).Business research methods. Cengage Learning.

The Enron and Worldcom Scandals Essay Example

The Enron and Worldcom Scandals Paper E. Boos – Week 2 – Assignment February 17, 2013 The Enron and WoldCom Scandals ENRON 1. The segment of Enron’s operations that got them into difficulties had several parts. They published misleading financial reports. They could not meet their bridge financing commitment with Barclay Bank because outside investors were not found. Because of this, they restated activities of JEDI and Chewco SPEs so they could be retroactively consolidated into Enron’s accounts. The SPEs helped to hide the inaccurate accounting records. Enron’s legal department wrote contracts that helped provide a cover for misuse of funds regarding the SPEs. Future revenue was reported as current revenue. Stocks were paid with promissory notes instead of cash. They also engaged in off-the-books activities and excessive executive compensation. Enron’s board of directors allowed the executives, accountants and legal department to use Special Purpose Entities (SPEs), a type of partnership, in an attempt to camouflage their debt and create a facade of financial stability (Brooks, 2007). 3. Enron’s directors understood how profits were made. They also knew management’s activities were dishonest. Andrew Fastow was active in forming the SPE partnerships and his affiliation with LJM2 was a conflict of interest. When Enron began experiencing financial problems in October 2001, the board of directors began holding special meetings. They were paid with cash, restricted stock, phantom stock units and stock options. The Senate Subcommittee Report, dated July 8, 2002, found that the Enron board of directors was aware that employees participated in management of the SPEs which was a conflict of interest. We will write a custom essay sample on The Enron and Worldcom Scandals specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Enron and Worldcom Scandals specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Enron and Worldcom Scandals specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The directors ignored the inaccurate accounting, extensive unrecorded activities and excessive executive compensation. The Senate report discovered that the board of directors knew of financial activities between Enron and some of the board’s members. The board permitted consulting services, internal audits, and external audits to be performed by the same company, namely, Arthur Andersen (Brooks, 2007). 5. Ken Lay was chairperson of the board. He reassumed the position of CEO after Skilling resigned. As CEO he oversaw all of Enron’s activities. Lay and Whaley directed Causey to sell the Raptor SPEs. The sale price of was privately negotiated between Fastor, on behalf of Enron, and Kopper on behalf of LJM2. Lay did not interfere when Arthur Andersen directed Enron to record the buyout excess money as income. He knowingly allowed fraudulent activities and false information to be included in the financial reports. This was unethical. The Powers Report identifies seven questionable accounting issues concerning the sale of the Raptors (Brooks, 2007). 6. The board of directors did not insist that full disclosure of Enron’s earning be made available to the public and the shareholders. They allowed inaccurate reports to be published. Since they did not challenge management involvement in fraudulent activities, this meant the shareholders interests were not protected (Brooks, 2007). 9. Conflict of interest concerning SPE activities occurred because Enron employees were active in managing certain SPEs. Losses were not reported in end of year reports to offset other nonprofitable dealings. Arthur Andersen did not report all of the earnings and helped Enron cover up losses. When Andrew Fastow, wanted to manage the SPE, Chewco, he was advised by Jeffrey Skilling who was on the board of directors, that he should not manage Chewco because it would be a conflict of interest. Instead, Fastow appointed Michael Kopper who worked for him at Enron, to manage Chewco (Brooks, 2007). WORLDCOM 1. To inflate their profit in the current period, WorldCom created overstatements of cash flow and income by inaccurately reporting line costs. Line costs were a major expense to WorldCom. They were payments WorldCom made to third party telecommunicator network providers for the right to access their networks. These costs should have been shown as an expense rather than appearing on the income statement (Brooks, 2007). 2. WorldCom’s board of directors could have prevented the manipulation of revenue that management used if they had not been intimidated by Bernie Ebbers. They allowed themselves to be intimidated by Bernie Ebbers when he did not want their questions answered or give them more definitive explanations. Eventually, they demanded Bernie Ebber’s resignation and he resigned. The board of directors scheduled periodic meetings with WorldCom. The directors should have been more involved and familiar with WorldCom’s activities and efforts to manipulate expenses and decreased income (Brooks, 2007). 4. Bernie Ebbers was the CEO of WorldCom, the CFO was Scott Sullivan and David Myers was the Controller. Prior to working for WorldCom they had worked for Arthur Andersen. Arthur Andersen was the auditor for WorldCom. That is why the accountants did not say or do anything to prevent Ebbers’ manipulation of WorldCom’s financial reports (Brooks, 2007). . Ebbers received $408. 2 million dollars as a loan to buy WorldCom stock or for margin calls as the stock price fell. Instead of using the money for the purpose he received it, he used it to buy a cattle ranch in Canada, build a new home, pay for personal expenses of a family member, and provide loans to family and friends (Brooks, 2007). Reference: Brooks, L. J. (2007). Business professional eth ics for directors, executives, accountants (4th ed. ). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database.

North Africa essays

North Africa essays In North Africa there is the country Algeria. Algeria is an interesting country because it is 99% Sunni Muslim. Christian and Jewish are the other 1%. They have only those three religions. Their Ethnic groups are Arab and Berber that equal 99%. European is less than 1%. They do not have as many ethnic groups as other countries in Africa do. They actually only have a small amount. They gained their independence in 1962 after an 8-year battle between them and France. The French owned them until 1962. There official language is Arabic but they also have Berber dialects and some French. The government of Algeria is republic just like most of the stable countries like us. The president of Algeria is Abdelaziz Bouteflika. He has been president since 1937 and is still going. Some of the major cities are Algiers the capital, In Salah, and Tamanresset is the other main cities there. There natural resources that most are exported are petroleum, natural gas, iron, phosphate, uranium, zinc. They have quite a few natural resources. The climate there is is really hot and arid. There landforms are the Atlas Mountains on the coast. Its 919, 590 square miles and is second largest country. Another country in North Africa is Egypt. Where all the pyramids are. Egypt is a very old country; it has been around a while. The interesting thing is they only have two religions that are Muslim and Coptic Christian. There ethnic groups are Greek, Nubian, American. They do have a few Americans, isnt that a surprise. They gained their independence 1922 from the United Kingdom. The worlds oldest civilizations. The climate in Egypt is hot and dry summers and moderate winters. The landform there is the desert. The natural resources are petroleum, natural gas, Iron Ore, and limestone. They also are the exports for there country. They speak three different languages Arabic, French and English. They do not have an official langue because they speak al...

Role Identification Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Role Identification - Essay Example It’s the duty of research assistant to contribute his/her help to the professionals to obtain maximum knowledge, organize, collect, compile and analyze data. They coordinate the trials and also make sure that all the procedures are followed properly. Research assistant also serves as coordinators, researchers, investigators, administrators, consultants or educators. It is also the reasonability of a research assistant to maintain discipline in following the rules and regulations in the industry and to maintain the safety and confidentiality in relation to the information. In a nutshell, we can say that the research assistant should be someone able enough to know how to improve the designs of new experiments; he should be able to keep all the records accurately and safely and present them when necessary. Also, supervision of the undergoing experiments and keeping the technicians busy with their work is the most important task required of him (Education Portal,

Moral and Ethical Principles in Public Policy Essay

Moral and Ethical Principles in Public Policy - Essay Example Public policy is what our individual representatives in Parliament choose to do, or not to do, about public problems that can have nationwide consequences. There are also public policy advocates that help bring public problems to the attention of Government on behalf of their clients and help Government made sound decisions or try to influence legislation in the favor of their client’s interests. Thus the actors or participants in public policy matters are primarily the Government functionaries, lobbyists and social pressure groups and other autonomous and semi-autonomous agencies. This paper will discuss the importance of public policy, actors in the policy macro-environment and their contributions, influences and value in shaping of public policy for a nation. The Importance of Public Policy A policy is a stated way of getting things done. It gives the procedures to effect a certain task in a given environment. It states rules and regulations under which business is to be co nducted or a course of action is to be pursued. Policies are guides to action. It may also happen that when a certain course of action has been adopted and is followed consistently by a number of people or groups with no adverse consequences noted for quite a while, that in time becomes public policy regarding that matter. Public policy is said to define a way of life for society, in terms of acceptable behavior and rules and norms that become codes of conduct in that particular culture. It reflects what society regards as important to uphold and preserve in its actions and codes of conduct in dealing with others as well as each other. Actors in the Public Policy Macro-Environment Politics, like diplomacy, is the art of the possible. It is the authority and power to do what is right, to follow the will of the mass of the people, in choosing our actions and their legislation. We are what we do, and the same is true of society, as its moral principles are enshrined in its code of cond uct and rules of law. Public policies reflect society’s most important matters and choices. There may also be a conflict of values, in which case a majority vote determines what is to be done or what receives priority over others. Actors in the public policy environment are the policy advocates, representatives at different levels of Government and in committees, commentators, lobbyists and others. At the highest level, it includes the President, the Governors of various States and members of the Legislature. At lower levels, it may involve school boards, the Mayor or the City Council. Of course, the type and number of actors involved in a particular public policy decision depend on its importance and reach- the number of people it is supposed to affect (Howlett, 1991). Do All the Actors Play Out the Roles They are Given Effectively? There has been considerable debate over whether the present procedures for enactment and consideration of public policy initiatives are sufficie nt to meet the purpose for which they were designed. Many a time it has been felt that we are proceeding at a snail’s pace when an important decision needs to be made.

Relationship between Business Strategy and IT Strategy

Relationship between Business Strategy and IT Strategy BUSINESS-IT ALIGNMENT (BITA) The relationship between Business strategy and IT strategy and the influence of organisation culture on this strategic alignment in Saudi firms will form the basis of the research in this research. As such, the literature reviewed here will survey major research and practice in the business-IT strategic alignment domain for the purpose of deriving a research framework, or model, of business-IT strategic alignment that will unite the key principles contained within the literature. The intention is to develop a model simple enough for application that will provide a practical tool both for management and IT practitioners. 2.1 BITA A CHRONLOGICAL HISTORY Study on the strategic alignment concept will soon be reaching a quarter of a decades worth of knowledge. Henderson Sifonis (1988) began studying this notion during the late 80s when alignment emerged from a focus on strategic business planning and long-range IT planning where IT plans were created in support of corporate strategies Chan Reich (2007, p. 298). Nevertheless, strategic alignment has retained its interest and value in the business and IT communities and is still a popular topic today for organisations; perhaps even more so as technological advancement continues to dominate the exchange of information. Not surprisingly, its evolution has followed closely the developmental progress of IT itself which began with the operational era continuing through the re-engineering viewpoint and the new economy as figure 2.1 illustrates: The initial phase, the operational era, was concerned primarily with the operations that an organisation performed and focused on setting up mainframes, managing networks of PCs, and backing up organisational data. IT provided the nuts and bolts to facilitate automation of back-office functions through the development of software and had only a supportive role. Strategic alignment was thus viewed merely as a supporting act for every-day operations with its software applications. The second phase, re-engineering, arose from the increasing trend toward dependency on the automation of business processes by IT which not only offered back-office functions support but the promise of total automation within an organization as a whole through IT software applications. At this stage, IT was still viewed only as a supportive tool with no representation in the business end of an organisation. For example, business managers expressed their system needs which the IT department embraced and went on to develop and deploy a new software application in isolation. These early strategic alignment projects were not always successful. It was discovered that the development of software (with embedded processes) for automation of a business function was no guarantee of improvement over its earlier manual operation, indeed it could end up being more time-consuming and therefore less efficient as operators were not necessarily au fait with the application. There was not a full unde rstanding of what IT could do and how it could enhance a companys position beyond speeding up communications and thereby creating more ‘time for production or interfacing. A ‘Them and Us atmosphere prevailed with the ‘techies in a separate world to the mangers or drivers of the business, neither fully understanding the others needs [elements that are also considered further in the organisation culture aspect of this research and dealt with in the next chapter]. In the 1990s, Baets study of European banks (Baets, 1996) supported the findings of Vitale and colleagues ten years earlier (Vitale et al., 1986) that knowledge of IT had to be on a par with expert business knowledge for the two to create any comprehension and thereby effective application of strategic alignment in organisations. The third phase, new economy, saw IT commanding greater importance and status as organisations began to emerge that were embracing e-commerce. The demands of the new e-business projects required involvement of IT representatives in their management and strategic planning. The implementation of Internet technologies to augment business processes for productivity or profitability improvements brought the role of IT into the spotlight, according it recognition and strategic responsibility. Along with the newly elevated status of the old IT department there was a greater familiarity with technology and its capabilities and the prejudice that had previously scorned the ‘nerds dissipated somewhat as managers and personnel became more knowledgeable and the IT personnel more essential beyond a lab coat and a screwdriver [cf: artifacts causing division, Schein (1992) and Trompenaars (1997) in chapter 3]. Despite the current global economic crisis and the demise of the new economy IT con tinues to assume new responsibilities and organisations have even more need for strategic alignment projects. An IT department in 2010 must manage relations with partners and bear business responsibilities concerned with the development and customisation of software that will improve how a business functions; practice effective project management to control costs and maximise efficiency and ensure that the introduction of any new hardware or software support operations and infrastructure, â€Å" maintaining the crucial corporate data that helps managers throughout the enterprise to make intelligent and informed decisions Hoque (2002, p. 31). Kearns Lederer, (2003) and Seggie et al. (2006) agree that strategic alignment is a means to gain competitive advantage and Sabherwal Chan (2001), Wagner et al. (2005) and Zhou et al. (2008) further add that it improves organisational performance. 2.2 DEFINING BITA Determining a conclusive definition for alignment is as challenging as its function and application. There are many perspectives and multiple definitions including in chronological order: strategic alignment (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993); harmony (Luftman, 1996); fit (Porter, 1996); bridge (Ciborra, 1997); integration (Weill and Broadbend, 1988); fusion (Smaczny, 2001); IS alignment (Chan et al., 2006; Benbya and McKelvey, 2006) business-IT alignment (Luftman, 2007); and IT alignment (Chan, 2007). It is understandable that there is such diversity as definitions depend on our understanding of language. The semantics involved are precarious because the new technologies are often described in technical terms and applying simplistic synonyms to explain the intention of alignment in the context of business IT in terminology that is understood without associated jargon is very difficult. Overall, the definitions offered, though they have nuances of difference between them, do relate to the improvement of organisational capability through technology. Broadbent and Weills (1993) early definition, purports that it is the degree to which information strategies support, stimulate and/or enable any business strategies. A later definition offered by Reich and Benbasat (1996) asserts much the same but frames it in terms of the missions of the IT and business objectives and plans on both sides. Luftman (2000) was the first to introduce the element of evolution into the definition and argued that it required strength [as the key element] from leadership, senior management and working relationships, combined with a complete understanding of the business and technical environments, fitting prioritisation, mutual trust, and of course, effective communication. Hirschheim and Sabherwals (2001) definition included the idea of a reciprocal arrangement as fundamental to its meaning and stated that alignment was the achieved between strategy and supporting structures that allowed both IS (information systems) and business to function and communica te responsively each way to one another. Most accepted definitions do highlight the alignment dichotomy described by Kearns and Lederer, (2000), where the argument is that the IS plan ought to align with the business plan (ISP-BP) and vice versa (BP-ISP) the business plan ought to align with the IS plan. Each perspective serves to increase the understanding of IT at organisational level and assist the prioritisation of IT projects. Reich and Benbasat (1996) were protagonists of the ISP-BP model, which they declared signified, IS managements comprehension of the business strategy. Whereas Bensaou and Earl (1998) contrarily preferred the BP-ISP alignment model as they believed it assumed a greater understanding on the part of the business comprehension of the IT aspects and thus the plan and the resources would ally more effectively together as a result of this knowledge, understanding and commitment. These elements are believed to be enablers of alignment (Luftman et al., 1999). In the definitions offered some view alignment as a specific happening or event and others regard it is an ongoing process. Duffy (2001) saw BITA as a process of achieving competitive advantage through a developed and sustained business and IT symbiosis. Maes et al. (2000) claimed BITA to be a continuous and continual process that involved management and design sub-processes with conscious and coherent interrelation of all elements and mechanisms within the business/IT relationship offering contribution to the ongoing performance of the organisation. Moodys (2003) definition saw BITA as a form of comprehensive resources management (people/ technology/ outside resources) that provides a set of IT services and capabilities that are in line with the business needs and priorities. And Senn (2003) was assured that each action executed by IT individuals was to focus on the creation and delivery of shareholder/stakeholder value through supporting business operations and/or achieving business goals. 2.3 BITA PERSPECTIVES AND DIMENSIONS With the diversity of definitions offered to explain the meaning of the strategic alignment concept, as outlined in the previous section, there is a need to further explore the differences to discover why there is such variety. Part of the explanation may be that as the concept has evolved it has been closely linked to the evolution of technological capabilities. Attitudes have changed as organisations have adopted new technologies and personnel have become more familiar with their potential and their operation. These dynamics and the evolution of strategic alignment are reflected in the number of conceptualisations and their definitions will be analysed in the context of the differing perspectives afforded to them. BITA with regard to its perception as a strategy, an event, a continuous process, a performance indicator, an assessment tool, a social influence and as an operation will be briefly outlined below to expand on the definitions in the literature from their different dimensi ons. 2.3.1 BITA AS A STRATEGY It has been a tradition for literature to refer to Business-IT alignment as ‘strategic alignment. Considering it in these terms frames it as an intellectual notion rather than something more concrete or practical and as such it can be high-jacked to represent whatever strategy suits the organisation that is considering alignment. There is no harm in referencing alignment in this manner for it allows debate and therefore change, essential for evolution and adopting a ‘strategy suitable to the structure, culture and level of alignment required. By referring to it in this way however, the literature suggests that strategic alignment is dependent on the fit between IT strategy and business strategy, and on how the IS plans are established to support such a fit (Teo and King, 1997). Many authors in the strategic alignment field approach alignment purely at the strategic level, e.g. Baets (1992), Broadbent and Weill (1993), Chan et al. (1997), and Luftman (2003). At the core of their conceptualisations is the notion that business strategy itself must first be analysed and only thereafter be used to determine a complementary IT strategy. In this scenario the business strategy is paramount and the IT strategy contribution secondary, it is a means to an end rather than a means in its own right. However, despite the alignment between business strategy and IT strategy where emphasis is laid on defining IS strategy plans (Benbya and Mckelvey, 2006) strategic alignment continues to be problematical in many organisations. Thus, reaching an agreed definition that details IS strategic plans is important for strategic alignment; however, is it not enough on its own for the achievement of such alignment (van der Zee and de Jong, 1999). 2.3.2 STRUCTURAL TOPOLOGY AFFECTING BITA The literature often takes for granted the strategic element of the concept and delves further into its implications for organisations, concentrating on the behaviour and nature of BITA what it does when you introduce it [and also is a strong feature of the organisational culture types discussed in the following chapter]. This depends largely on what type of a structure into which it is introduced. A formal structure, an informal structure or a hybrid structure, each having its own merits and each being capable of effective function when the circumstances and environment are conducive to the choice made (Brown and Magill, 1994). Against their three identified structures, Earl (1989) identified five potentially suitable structures: centralized, business unit, business venture, decentralised, and federal. Tavakolian (1989) found a direct correlation between competitive and conservative strategies within an environment and the corresponding decentralised or centralised IT structures ev ident in an organisation and this finding is supported to some extent by Bergeron et al. (2001) with the caveat that it is not solely the complexity of structure that impacts performance but that other factors are influential too. Chans (2001) view is that informal structure, â€Å"†¦relationship-based structures that transcend the formal division of labour and coordination of tasks†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Chan, 2001, p67) can be just as effective as formal structure with the human element rather than intellectualised models and processes driving alignment, often with more impact and success than a formal arrangement. Structure, therefore can add a new dimension to the perspective of alignment as it places it in a setting that will impose its own constraints on the practice and execution of alignment exercises and ideals. 2.3.3 BITA AS AN END IN ITSELF For some authors it alignment doesnt seem to ‘do anything rather it is a business unit that lacks the dynamics others see in it. The implication is that it is something that is ‘brought in like an object concrete and physical and recognised by its static end state where some sort of equilibrium is achieved between the IT and business sides in an organisation. In the previous section, some of the definitions only present strategic alignment as an outcome achieved through the employment and adoption of different models, techniques and processes (Ortiz, 2003). Broadbent and Weill (1993), Chan et al. (1997), Luftman (2003) and Reich and Benbasat (1996), also see strategic alignment as something to be arrived at, a destination that is terminated when an optimal situation has been achieved. This may be a misunderstanding of the full meaning as the attitude that having strategic alignment the business married with the technology required for effective fulfillment of objectives cannot stand alone and it would be naà ¯ve to believe that BITA was a panacea for all business problems so perhaps the authors see it as an optimal achievement when all the other factors, or perspectives, also come into play to make BITA a worthwhile ‘thing in itself. 2.3.4 BITA AS A CONTINUING PROCESS If a business is static it will stagnate and if a business wishes to grow, like IT, it must always continue to evolve through a naturally occurring dynamics that are integral to the implementation of policies such as strategic alignment. Baets (1996), Luftman et al. (1999), and Rondinelli (2001) agree that these dynamics require constant monitoring and appropriate adjustment. Therefore, strategic alignment is not something attainable but something constantly in development, as it is variously described by Henderson and Venkatraman (1993), Baets 1996, Maes et al. (2000), Duffy (2001), Moody (2003), and Senn (2004). â€Å"An issue that has remained relatively unchallenged and unquestioned is how to align IT that is relatively fixed once implemented in an organization, with a business strategy and associated information requirements that are constantly in need of adjustment Galliers (2007, p. 228). Even within this perspective there are two schools of thought; the classical school of thought with emphasis on contingency adaptations and the ‘processual approach (Whittington, 1993) that emphasises the importance of addressing internal and power issues, particularly how cultural elements influence the formal elements of rationality and the decision process in strategic alignment and rejects IT as merely an adaptation but gives it greater weight as a resource. Furthermore, practitioners are being advised to adopt a view of strategic alignment as a continual process. In Pearlmans (2004) article advice to CIOs, in summary, is that they should communicate, demonstrate, lead, collaborate, govern and build if they wish to achieve alignment. 2.3.5 BITA FOR PERFORMANCE INDICATION It is the consideration of several authors that strategic alignment is not only a process but also a tool whereby they can reflect on the business value that organisations might possess, or not. In studies analysed the relationship between strategic alignment and competitive advantage or organisational performance were tracked, (Venkatraman, 1989; Sabherwal and Chan, 2001; Kearns and Lederer, 2003; Wagner, 2005; Seggie et al., 2006; Zhou, 2008). Tallon and Kraemer (2003) were responsible for the additional concept of business value being included as an element to the performance indication point of view of strategic alignment and analyse business value by relating it to organisational IT goals and measuring the IT return of investment from a strategic alignment viewpoint. 2.3.6 ASSESSMENT USING BITA In response to the question: `how do organisations know how good their strategic alignment is? different authors have developed Maturity Models (MMs) (de Koning and der Mark, 2002; Duffy, 2001; Luftman, 2003; van der Raadt et al., 2005). MMs describe the development of a specific domain over time. This perspective is in itself a more mature outlook than other perspectives as it has to consider many of the dynamics before being able to construct an effective strategic alignment. Because of the in-built review and evaluation required for this perspective it has to look at all aspects that the alignment may affect. Researchwork and systems are subject to assessment and revision through these maturity models and their monitoring. On the basis of the assessments of those MMs, organisations can fine tune and calibrate their strategic alignment: Identify any alignment-related aspects/processes improvements required to obtain a higher level of strategic alignment maturity. Initiate any change processes to ensure that the identified improvements eventuate. In much the same way, acceptance of the cyclical nature of strategic alignment as posited by Burns (1996) ‘lead-lag model implies assessment in response to intermittent predictable and unpredictable changes as does the ‘punctuated equilibrium model of Sabherwal et al. (2001) where interruptions to stability demand a fresh look at the long term plan and goals of strategic alignment. 2.3.7 BITA AS A SOCIAL INFLUENCE If an organisation intends to work toward achieving strategic alignment it will necessitate communication that will involve negotiation, collaboration and mutual understanding elements not always present a specific organisational structure or culture. This communication can blur the boundaries of traditional or conventional approaches and therefore becomes a driving force behind social attitudes and perceptions. Chan (2002) and Huang and Hu (2007) uphold this view that maintaining effective communication in an organisation will impact on corporate strategic alignment culture. Concord must be developed for effective channels of communication, transparency in the exchange of knowledge and sharing of learning (Hoque, 2002; Daneva and Hu, 2007), and the use of informal communication is just as important a factor for adjustment and control (Mintzberg, 1993; Chan, 2002; vander Raadt et al., 2005), to generate an atmosphere of trust and an effective response to business needs from an IT pe rspective. Reich and Benbasats (2000) study further confirms that strategic alignment is more likely to succeed when business and IT executives have an [importantly] expressed and [understood] shared common vision of ITs contribution. 2.3.8 BITA AND OPERATIONS Strategic alignment [when it is all-encompassing and embraced by all as part of an organisational culture] necessarily involves organisational issues of communication, structure and, particularly, coordination processes that are operational to the business in specifically performed actions (Wieringa, 2008). Operational strategic alignment consists of aligning the operational activities of IT and business people with each other so that optimal IT support for business requirements is achieved. In this context, Peak and Guynes (2003) put the onus of success on the IT side of the equation, though it does imply some reciprocity in the initial communication of ‘quality requirements and they state that strategic alignment will only be attained when an organisations IT staff can deliver quality information and quality IT products and services to the business side. 2.4 BITA MODELS 2.4.1 MIT90S FRAMEWORK (1991) During the 1980s, research conducted at the world renowned MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) initiated interest in the academic community to the potential of the strategic power of IT. In the attempt to exploit the possibilities revealed in the model from the research it was suggested that radical innovation involving IT investment could carry substantial reward if key elements of strategy, structure, technology, management processes and individuals and their roles were kept in alignment (Morton, 1991). Organisation can be visualised as a set of five forces in dynamic equilibrium subject to external influences from the technological environment and the socio-economic environment. In this view, a core task of general management is to ensure that all five ‘forces (represented by the boxes), can flow without restriction or impediment in order to achieve the organisations goals and objectives. With management at the centre of the model its role is central too. Though some areas might not necessarily be in direct contact with each other they are connected via the management process which plays the principal role and ensures organisational response to shifts in demands from the external variables. 2.4.2 THE HENDERSON AND VENKATRAMAN STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT MODEL (1993) Henderson Venkatramans (1993) strategic model (Figure 2.3) is a widely used four-part illustration favoured by many researchers and organisations for the assessment of the level of alignment in a company. Each of the four parts [quarters] contain three distinct and individuals elements which, when collectively analysed, can be used to define each quarter operationally. These twelve elements- further expanded in Table 1 are used to establish the level and type of alignment within a corporation (Henderson Venkatraman, 1993; Papp, 1995). Table 1 Components of the Strategic Alignment Model Within the model it can be seen how external influences may affect change on either processes [lower sectors] or strategies [upper sectors]. A vertical link couples the upper and lowers sectors and shows the relationship between strategic fit to accommodate strategy with infrastructure. A horizontal link for functional integration shows how IT strategies must adapt as business strategies change, and displays the dependence and required response of each sector upon anothers adaptations particularly in relation to skills and operation. Giving focus to three of the four quarters of the model at a given time can permit a simultaneous address to both strategic fit and functional integration (Papp, 1995; Luftman et al., 1999). The SAM (Strategic Alignment Model) model has proven empirical authenticity and has provided valid conceptual and practical value (Goedvolk et al,. 1997; Avison et al., 2004). Nevertheless, it is subject to confines, eg, the applicability of the SAM model may vary depending on the IT-intensity of an industry and the assumptions expounded might not be relevant to the circumstances (Burn and Szeto, 2000). As mentioned, the model does have recognition and a number of scholars have further elaborated on it (e.g., Luftman et al., 1993). Goedvolk et al.s (1997) extension of the SAM model gave greater focus to technical and architectural attributes. Avison et al.s (2004) addition to the SAM model was able to provide practitioners and academics with further practical ways to attain alignment in their advocacy of examining projects retrospectively to determine alignment. This form of alignment monitoring, can allow pre-emption in a change in strategy and implementation of a new alignment perspective by re-allocation of project resources. The SAM model inspired Maes et al. (2000) to produce a framework that incorporates even more layers pertinent to function and strategy where information providers are separated from the systems providing information in a new information domain representing knowledge, [and exchange of information through] communication and coordination. Their third dimension addresses specific sub-architecture areas. 2.4.3 IS CAPABILITY AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE MODEL (2004) Peppard and Wards model (2004) shows IS capability at the core of everything, inherently affecting competencies and emanating an influence on all areas that interrelate [business strategy/business operations/IT operations and services/IS/IT strategy] and impact upon the organisational performance. Such focus on the importance of this core element demonstrates the value IS capabilities can create and is therefore an organisation-wide responsibility that cannot be delegated to the IS function alone (Peppard et al., 2000). Peppard and Ward (2004) later asserted that though an organisation might envisage an IT based innovative strategy, it will be their IS capabilities that permit such a vision to come to fruition. 2.4.4 CO-EVOLUTIONARY IS ALIGNMENT (2006) By 2006 the model suggested by Benbya and McKelvey (2006) through its graphic presentation appears a more fluid representation suggesting, even visually, that there is more of a flow between relationships in alignment. It still addresses the need to analyse relationships between business and IT (horizontal IS alignment) but introduces a need to merge the views at different levels [strategic/operational/individual] of analysis (vertical IS alignment) through shared understanding and communication. The co-evolutionary IS alignment perspective conveys the necessity for mutual adaptation within a dynamic interplay of co-evolving elements. Co-evolution does not necessarily seek harmony between the elements but a respect for their position and the innovation that may result from the circumstances and environments in which they function. 2.5 ASSESSMENT APPROACHES OF BITA In this section MMs (maturity models) are referred to that have been developed for the assessment of BITA. 2.5.1 DUFFYS MM (2001) Duffys (2001) MM is founded on the principle that a dependable, mutually compatible partnership between IT and business executives is elementary in order to achieve a worthwhile BITA. Without this premise there cannot be a successful desired outcome. Accepting that there is a level of interdependence between IT and business objectives, any schism or division between IT and non-IT areas would sabotage any efforts to establish alignment. This model is arranged about a series of key success drivers (the domains: human resources organisation and management/innovation and renewal strategy/IT/business architecture/IT/business partnership/operational excellence/ROI strategy management) which are operationalised in KPIs (key performance indicators) that each contain five contributory factors aspects designed to address explicit and significant questions within the KPI where it is included. The six domains are briefly explained below: Human resources organisation and management. In this domain reference is made to an organisations personnel and emphasis is given to the importance of workforce recruitment, retention and management by an organisation. Innovation and renewal strategy. The focus here is how innovative an organisation is with an emphasis on currency and validity having a bearing upon understanding when renewal is required to processes and capabilities in an organisation. IT/business architecture. This domain is concerned with the relationship and interaction of entities involved in the information and applications in the business environment of an organisation. IT/business partnership. This domain reflects how the recent upgrading of the role of the IT function affects an organisation â€Å"Technology is critical to business success and this co-dependency drives the need for the IT and non-IT executives to pursue a win/win relationship Duffy (2003, p. 4). Operational excellence. This domain deals with the performance outcomes of the organisation. Duffy recognises that operational excellence can only be achieved if an organisation can recognise the value of ideals embedded in learning and partnerships, and can respond to market demands promptly. ROI strategy and management. This domain investigates the importance of the metrics and processes required for efficient and effective financial management within organisations and accepting IT costs and benefits as having parity with business ones. Duffys six domains address the â€Å"IT and non-IT assertion as well as certain strategic elements within an organisation but there are no explicitly stated maturity levels for them. Instead, Duffy merges the six domains of the model into four BITA scenarios where organisations fall into the following categories: â€Å"uneasy alliance†, â€Å"supplier/consumer relationship†, â€Å"co-dependence/grudging respect†, and â€Å"united we succeed, divided we fail†. These laymans terms are loose at best and though intended to be descriptive only serve to confuse in their interpretation. Such scenarios are the maturity levels in the model. 2.5.2 LUFTMANS MM (2003) Luftmans model (2003) was constructed on the basis of practical experience and research into enablers and inhibitors of alignment (Luftman et al, 1999), incorporating reference to various other models [here listed chronologically and not in order of importance or influence]: Nolans stages of growth model (Nolan, 1979), SAM (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993) and CMMs (Capability Maturity Model) reach and range concept of (Keen, 1996). Luftmans MM is an endeavour based in six domains (skills/technology scope/partnership/governance/competency measurements/communications) to discover a specific organisations BITA profile. A brief description of each domain follows: Skills: addresses practical human resources issues such as cross-training in IT and business issues regarding the cultural environment and its impact on innovation and organisational change. Technology scope: refers to how much provision of comprehensible and flexible infrastructure comes from IT, the implementation of emergent technol Relationship between Business Strategy and IT Strategy Relationship between Business Strategy and IT Strategy BUSINESS-IT ALIGNMENT (BITA) The relationship between Business strategy and IT strategy and the influence of organisation culture on this strategic alignment in Saudi firms will form the basis of the research in this research. As such, the literature reviewed here will survey major research and practice in the business-IT strategic alignment domain for the purpose of deriving a research framework, or model, of business-IT strategic alignment that will unite the key principles contained within the literature. The intention is to develop a model simple enough for application that will provide a practical tool both for management and IT practitioners. 2.1 BITA A CHRONLOGICAL HISTORY Study on the strategic alignment concept will soon be reaching a quarter of a decades worth of knowledge. Henderson Sifonis (1988) began studying this notion during the late 80s when alignment emerged from a focus on strategic business planning and long-range IT planning where IT plans were created in support of corporate strategies Chan Reich (2007, p. 298). Nevertheless, strategic alignment has retained its interest and value in the business and IT communities and is still a popular topic today for organisations; perhaps even more so as technological advancement continues to dominate the exchange of information. Not surprisingly, its evolution has followed closely the developmental progress of IT itself which began with the operational era continuing through the re-engineering viewpoint and the new economy as figure 2.1 illustrates: The initial phase, the operational era, was concerned primarily with the operations that an organisation performed and focused on setting up mainframes, managing networks of PCs, and backing up organisational data. IT provided the nuts and bolts to facilitate automation of back-office functions through the development of software and had only a supportive role. Strategic alignment was thus viewed merely as a supporting act for every-day operations with its software applications. The second phase, re-engineering, arose from the increasing trend toward dependency on the automation of business processes by IT which not only offered back-office functions support but the promise of total automation within an organization as a whole through IT software applications. At this stage, IT was still viewed only as a supportive tool with no representation in the business end of an organisation. For example, business managers expressed their system needs which the IT department embraced and went on to develop and deploy a new software application in isolation. These early strategic alignment projects were not always successful. It was discovered that the development of software (with embedded processes) for automation of a business function was no guarantee of improvement over its earlier manual operation, indeed it could end up being more time-consuming and therefore less efficient as operators were not necessarily au fait with the application. There was not a full unde rstanding of what IT could do and how it could enhance a companys position beyond speeding up communications and thereby creating more ‘time for production or interfacing. A ‘Them and Us atmosphere prevailed with the ‘techies in a separate world to the mangers or drivers of the business, neither fully understanding the others needs [elements that are also considered further in the organisation culture aspect of this research and dealt with in the next chapter]. In the 1990s, Baets study of European banks (Baets, 1996) supported the findings of Vitale and colleagues ten years earlier (Vitale et al., 1986) that knowledge of IT had to be on a par with expert business knowledge for the two to create any comprehension and thereby effective application of strategic alignment in organisations. The third phase, new economy, saw IT commanding greater importance and status as organisations began to emerge that were embracing e-commerce. The demands of the new e-business projects required involvement of IT representatives in their management and strategic planning. The implementation of Internet technologies to augment business processes for productivity or profitability improvements brought the role of IT into the spotlight, according it recognition and strategic responsibility. Along with the newly elevated status of the old IT department there was a greater familiarity with technology and its capabilities and the prejudice that had previously scorned the ‘nerds dissipated somewhat as managers and personnel became more knowledgeable and the IT personnel more essential beyond a lab coat and a screwdriver [cf: artifacts causing division, Schein (1992) and Trompenaars (1997) in chapter 3]. Despite the current global economic crisis and the demise of the new economy IT con tinues to assume new responsibilities and organisations have even more need for strategic alignment projects. An IT department in 2010 must manage relations with partners and bear business responsibilities concerned with the development and customisation of software that will improve how a business functions; practice effective project management to control costs and maximise efficiency and ensure that the introduction of any new hardware or software support operations and infrastructure, â€Å" maintaining the crucial corporate data that helps managers throughout the enterprise to make intelligent and informed decisions Hoque (2002, p. 31). Kearns Lederer, (2003) and Seggie et al. (2006) agree that strategic alignment is a means to gain competitive advantage and Sabherwal Chan (2001), Wagner et al. (2005) and Zhou et al. (2008) further add that it improves organisational performance. 2.2 DEFINING BITA Determining a conclusive definition for alignment is as challenging as its function and application. There are many perspectives and multiple definitions including in chronological order: strategic alignment (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993); harmony (Luftman, 1996); fit (Porter, 1996); bridge (Ciborra, 1997); integration (Weill and Broadbend, 1988); fusion (Smaczny, 2001); IS alignment (Chan et al., 2006; Benbya and McKelvey, 2006) business-IT alignment (Luftman, 2007); and IT alignment (Chan, 2007). It is understandable that there is such diversity as definitions depend on our understanding of language. The semantics involved are precarious because the new technologies are often described in technical terms and applying simplistic synonyms to explain the intention of alignment in the context of business IT in terminology that is understood without associated jargon is very difficult. Overall, the definitions offered, though they have nuances of difference between them, do relate to the improvement of organisational capability through technology. Broadbent and Weills (1993) early definition, purports that it is the degree to which information strategies support, stimulate and/or enable any business strategies. A later definition offered by Reich and Benbasat (1996) asserts much the same but frames it in terms of the missions of the IT and business objectives and plans on both sides. Luftman (2000) was the first to introduce the element of evolution into the definition and argued that it required strength [as the key element] from leadership, senior management and working relationships, combined with a complete understanding of the business and technical environments, fitting prioritisation, mutual trust, and of course, effective communication. Hirschheim and Sabherwals (2001) definition included the idea of a reciprocal arrangement as fundamental to its meaning and stated that alignment was the achieved between strategy and supporting structures that allowed both IS (information systems) and business to function and communica te responsively each way to one another. Most accepted definitions do highlight the alignment dichotomy described by Kearns and Lederer, (2000), where the argument is that the IS plan ought to align with the business plan (ISP-BP) and vice versa (BP-ISP) the business plan ought to align with the IS plan. Each perspective serves to increase the understanding of IT at organisational level and assist the prioritisation of IT projects. Reich and Benbasat (1996) were protagonists of the ISP-BP model, which they declared signified, IS managements comprehension of the business strategy. Whereas Bensaou and Earl (1998) contrarily preferred the BP-ISP alignment model as they believed it assumed a greater understanding on the part of the business comprehension of the IT aspects and thus the plan and the resources would ally more effectively together as a result of this knowledge, understanding and commitment. These elements are believed to be enablers of alignment (Luftman et al., 1999). In the definitions offered some view alignment as a specific happening or event and others regard it is an ongoing process. Duffy (2001) saw BITA as a process of achieving competitive advantage through a developed and sustained business and IT symbiosis. Maes et al. (2000) claimed BITA to be a continuous and continual process that involved management and design sub-processes with conscious and coherent interrelation of all elements and mechanisms within the business/IT relationship offering contribution to the ongoing performance of the organisation. Moodys (2003) definition saw BITA as a form of comprehensive resources management (people/ technology/ outside resources) that provides a set of IT services and capabilities that are in line with the business needs and priorities. And Senn (2003) was assured that each action executed by IT individuals was to focus on the creation and delivery of shareholder/stakeholder value through supporting business operations and/or achieving business goals. 2.3 BITA PERSPECTIVES AND DIMENSIONS With the diversity of definitions offered to explain the meaning of the strategic alignment concept, as outlined in the previous section, there is a need to further explore the differences to discover why there is such variety. Part of the explanation may be that as the concept has evolved it has been closely linked to the evolution of technological capabilities. Attitudes have changed as organisations have adopted new technologies and personnel have become more familiar with their potential and their operation. These dynamics and the evolution of strategic alignment are reflected in the number of conceptualisations and their definitions will be analysed in the context of the differing perspectives afforded to them. BITA with regard to its perception as a strategy, an event, a continuous process, a performance indicator, an assessment tool, a social influence and as an operation will be briefly outlined below to expand on the definitions in the literature from their different dimensi ons. 2.3.1 BITA AS A STRATEGY It has been a tradition for literature to refer to Business-IT alignment as ‘strategic alignment. Considering it in these terms frames it as an intellectual notion rather than something more concrete or practical and as such it can be high-jacked to represent whatever strategy suits the organisation that is considering alignment. There is no harm in referencing alignment in this manner for it allows debate and therefore change, essential for evolution and adopting a ‘strategy suitable to the structure, culture and level of alignment required. By referring to it in this way however, the literature suggests that strategic alignment is dependent on the fit between IT strategy and business strategy, and on how the IS plans are established to support such a fit (Teo and King, 1997). Many authors in the strategic alignment field approach alignment purely at the strategic level, e.g. Baets (1992), Broadbent and Weill (1993), Chan et al. (1997), and Luftman (2003). At the core of their conceptualisations is the notion that business strategy itself must first be analysed and only thereafter be used to determine a complementary IT strategy. In this scenario the business strategy is paramount and the IT strategy contribution secondary, it is a means to an end rather than a means in its own right. However, despite the alignment between business strategy and IT strategy where emphasis is laid on defining IS strategy plans (Benbya and Mckelvey, 2006) strategic alignment continues to be problematical in many organisations. Thus, reaching an agreed definition that details IS strategic plans is important for strategic alignment; however, is it not enough on its own for the achievement of such alignment (van der Zee and de Jong, 1999). 2.3.2 STRUCTURAL TOPOLOGY AFFECTING BITA The literature often takes for granted the strategic element of the concept and delves further into its implications for organisations, concentrating on the behaviour and nature of BITA what it does when you introduce it [and also is a strong feature of the organisational culture types discussed in the following chapter]. This depends largely on what type of a structure into which it is introduced. A formal structure, an informal structure or a hybrid structure, each having its own merits and each being capable of effective function when the circumstances and environment are conducive to the choice made (Brown and Magill, 1994). Against their three identified structures, Earl (1989) identified five potentially suitable structures: centralized, business unit, business venture, decentralised, and federal. Tavakolian (1989) found a direct correlation between competitive and conservative strategies within an environment and the corresponding decentralised or centralised IT structures ev ident in an organisation and this finding is supported to some extent by Bergeron et al. (2001) with the caveat that it is not solely the complexity of structure that impacts performance but that other factors are influential too. Chans (2001) view is that informal structure, â€Å"†¦relationship-based structures that transcend the formal division of labour and coordination of tasks†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Chan, 2001, p67) can be just as effective as formal structure with the human element rather than intellectualised models and processes driving alignment, often with more impact and success than a formal arrangement. Structure, therefore can add a new dimension to the perspective of alignment as it places it in a setting that will impose its own constraints on the practice and execution of alignment exercises and ideals. 2.3.3 BITA AS AN END IN ITSELF For some authors it alignment doesnt seem to ‘do anything rather it is a business unit that lacks the dynamics others see in it. The implication is that it is something that is ‘brought in like an object concrete and physical and recognised by its static end state where some sort of equilibrium is achieved between the IT and business sides in an organisation. In the previous section, some of the definitions only present strategic alignment as an outcome achieved through the employment and adoption of different models, techniques and processes (Ortiz, 2003). Broadbent and Weill (1993), Chan et al. (1997), Luftman (2003) and Reich and Benbasat (1996), also see strategic alignment as something to be arrived at, a destination that is terminated when an optimal situation has been achieved. This may be a misunderstanding of the full meaning as the attitude that having strategic alignment the business married with the technology required for effective fulfillment of objectives cannot stand alone and it would be naà ¯ve to believe that BITA was a panacea for all business problems so perhaps the authors see it as an optimal achievement when all the other factors, or perspectives, also come into play to make BITA a worthwhile ‘thing in itself. 2.3.4 BITA AS A CONTINUING PROCESS If a business is static it will stagnate and if a business wishes to grow, like IT, it must always continue to evolve through a naturally occurring dynamics that are integral to the implementation of policies such as strategic alignment. Baets (1996), Luftman et al. (1999), and Rondinelli (2001) agree that these dynamics require constant monitoring and appropriate adjustment. Therefore, strategic alignment is not something attainable but something constantly in development, as it is variously described by Henderson and Venkatraman (1993), Baets 1996, Maes et al. (2000), Duffy (2001), Moody (2003), and Senn (2004). â€Å"An issue that has remained relatively unchallenged and unquestioned is how to align IT that is relatively fixed once implemented in an organization, with a business strategy and associated information requirements that are constantly in need of adjustment Galliers (2007, p. 228). Even within this perspective there are two schools of thought; the classical school of thought with emphasis on contingency adaptations and the ‘processual approach (Whittington, 1993) that emphasises the importance of addressing internal and power issues, particularly how cultural elements influence the formal elements of rationality and the decision process in strategic alignment and rejects IT as merely an adaptation but gives it greater weight as a resource. Furthermore, practitioners are being advised to adopt a view of strategic alignment as a continual process. In Pearlmans (2004) article advice to CIOs, in summary, is that they should communicate, demonstrate, lead, collaborate, govern and build if they wish to achieve alignment. 2.3.5 BITA FOR PERFORMANCE INDICATION It is the consideration of several authors that strategic alignment is not only a process but also a tool whereby they can reflect on the business value that organisations might possess, or not. In studies analysed the relationship between strategic alignment and competitive advantage or organisational performance were tracked, (Venkatraman, 1989; Sabherwal and Chan, 2001; Kearns and Lederer, 2003; Wagner, 2005; Seggie et al., 2006; Zhou, 2008). Tallon and Kraemer (2003) were responsible for the additional concept of business value being included as an element to the performance indication point of view of strategic alignment and analyse business value by relating it to organisational IT goals and measuring the IT return of investment from a strategic alignment viewpoint. 2.3.6 ASSESSMENT USING BITA In response to the question: `how do organisations know how good their strategic alignment is? different authors have developed Maturity Models (MMs) (de Koning and der Mark, 2002; Duffy, 2001; Luftman, 2003; van der Raadt et al., 2005). MMs describe the development of a specific domain over time. This perspective is in itself a more mature outlook than other perspectives as it has to consider many of the dynamics before being able to construct an effective strategic alignment. Because of the in-built review and evaluation required for this perspective it has to look at all aspects that the alignment may affect. Researchwork and systems are subject to assessment and revision through these maturity models and their monitoring. On the basis of the assessments of those MMs, organisations can fine tune and calibrate their strategic alignment: Identify any alignment-related aspects/processes improvements required to obtain a higher level of strategic alignment maturity. Initiate any change processes to ensure that the identified improvements eventuate. In much the same way, acceptance of the cyclical nature of strategic alignment as posited by Burns (1996) ‘lead-lag model implies assessment in response to intermittent predictable and unpredictable changes as does the ‘punctuated equilibrium model of Sabherwal et al. (2001) where interruptions to stability demand a fresh look at the long term plan and goals of strategic alignment. 2.3.7 BITA AS A SOCIAL INFLUENCE If an organisation intends to work toward achieving strategic alignment it will necessitate communication that will involve negotiation, collaboration and mutual understanding elements not always present a specific organisational structure or culture. This communication can blur the boundaries of traditional or conventional approaches and therefore becomes a driving force behind social attitudes and perceptions. Chan (2002) and Huang and Hu (2007) uphold this view that maintaining effective communication in an organisation will impact on corporate strategic alignment culture. Concord must be developed for effective channels of communication, transparency in the exchange of knowledge and sharing of learning (Hoque, 2002; Daneva and Hu, 2007), and the use of informal communication is just as important a factor for adjustment and control (Mintzberg, 1993; Chan, 2002; vander Raadt et al., 2005), to generate an atmosphere of trust and an effective response to business needs from an IT pe rspective. Reich and Benbasats (2000) study further confirms that strategic alignment is more likely to succeed when business and IT executives have an [importantly] expressed and [understood] shared common vision of ITs contribution. 2.3.8 BITA AND OPERATIONS Strategic alignment [when it is all-encompassing and embraced by all as part of an organisational culture] necessarily involves organisational issues of communication, structure and, particularly, coordination processes that are operational to the business in specifically performed actions (Wieringa, 2008). Operational strategic alignment consists of aligning the operational activities of IT and business people with each other so that optimal IT support for business requirements is achieved. In this context, Peak and Guynes (2003) put the onus of success on the IT side of the equation, though it does imply some reciprocity in the initial communication of ‘quality requirements and they state that strategic alignment will only be attained when an organisations IT staff can deliver quality information and quality IT products and services to the business side. 2.4 BITA MODELS 2.4.1 MIT90S FRAMEWORK (1991) During the 1980s, research conducted at the world renowned MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) initiated interest in the academic community to the potential of the strategic power of IT. In the attempt to exploit the possibilities revealed in the model from the research it was suggested that radical innovation involving IT investment could carry substantial reward if key elements of strategy, structure, technology, management processes and individuals and their roles were kept in alignment (Morton, 1991). Organisation can be visualised as a set of five forces in dynamic equilibrium subject to external influences from the technological environment and the socio-economic environment. In this view, a core task of general management is to ensure that all five ‘forces (represented by the boxes), can flow without restriction or impediment in order to achieve the organisations goals and objectives. With management at the centre of the model its role is central too. Though some areas might not necessarily be in direct contact with each other they are connected via the management process which plays the principal role and ensures organisational response to shifts in demands from the external variables. 2.4.2 THE HENDERSON AND VENKATRAMAN STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT MODEL (1993) Henderson Venkatramans (1993) strategic model (Figure 2.3) is a widely used four-part illustration favoured by many researchers and organisations for the assessment of the level of alignment in a company. Each of the four parts [quarters] contain three distinct and individuals elements which, when collectively analysed, can be used to define each quarter operationally. These twelve elements- further expanded in Table 1 are used to establish the level and type of alignment within a corporation (Henderson Venkatraman, 1993; Papp, 1995). Table 1 Components of the Strategic Alignment Model Within the model it can be seen how external influences may affect change on either processes [lower sectors] or strategies [upper sectors]. A vertical link couples the upper and lowers sectors and shows the relationship between strategic fit to accommodate strategy with infrastructure. A horizontal link for functional integration shows how IT strategies must adapt as business strategies change, and displays the dependence and required response of each sector upon anothers adaptations particularly in relation to skills and operation. Giving focus to three of the four quarters of the model at a given time can permit a simultaneous address to both strategic fit and functional integration (Papp, 1995; Luftman et al., 1999). The SAM (Strategic Alignment Model) model has proven empirical authenticity and has provided valid conceptual and practical value (Goedvolk et al,. 1997; Avison et al., 2004). Nevertheless, it is subject to confines, eg, the applicability of the SAM model may vary depending on the IT-intensity of an industry and the assumptions expounded might not be relevant to the circumstances (Burn and Szeto, 2000). As mentioned, the model does have recognition and a number of scholars have further elaborated on it (e.g., Luftman et al., 1993). Goedvolk et al.s (1997) extension of the SAM model gave greater focus to technical and architectural attributes. Avison et al.s (2004) addition to the SAM model was able to provide practitioners and academics with further practical ways to attain alignment in their advocacy of examining projects retrospectively to determine alignment. This form of alignment monitoring, can allow pre-emption in a change in strategy and implementation of a new alignment perspective by re-allocation of project resources. The SAM model inspired Maes et al. (2000) to produce a framework that incorporates even more layers pertinent to function and strategy where information providers are separated from the systems providing information in a new information domain representing knowledge, [and exchange of information through] communication and coordination. Their third dimension addresses specific sub-architecture areas. 2.4.3 IS CAPABILITY AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE MODEL (2004) Peppard and Wards model (2004) shows IS capability at the core of everything, inherently affecting competencies and emanating an influence on all areas that interrelate [business strategy/business operations/IT operations and services/IS/IT strategy] and impact upon the organisational performance. Such focus on the importance of this core element demonstrates the value IS capabilities can create and is therefore an organisation-wide responsibility that cannot be delegated to the IS function alone (Peppard et al., 2000). Peppard and Ward (2004) later asserted that though an organisation might envisage an IT based innovative strategy, it will be their IS capabilities that permit such a vision to come to fruition. 2.4.4 CO-EVOLUTIONARY IS ALIGNMENT (2006) By 2006 the model suggested by Benbya and McKelvey (2006) through its graphic presentation appears a more fluid representation suggesting, even visually, that there is more of a flow between relationships in alignment. It still addresses the need to analyse relationships between business and IT (horizontal IS alignment) but introduces a need to merge the views at different levels [strategic/operational/individual] of analysis (vertical IS alignment) through shared understanding and communication. The co-evolutionary IS alignment perspective conveys the necessity for mutual adaptation within a dynamic interplay of co-evolving elements. Co-evolution does not necessarily seek harmony between the elements but a respect for their position and the innovation that may result from the circumstances and environments in which they function. 2.5 ASSESSMENT APPROACHES OF BITA In this section MMs (maturity models) are referred to that have been developed for the assessment of BITA. 2.5.1 DUFFYS MM (2001) Duffys (2001) MM is founded on the principle that a dependable, mutually compatible partnership between IT and business executives is elementary in order to achieve a worthwhile BITA. Without this premise there cannot be a successful desired outcome. Accepting that there is a level of interdependence between IT and business objectives, any schism or division between IT and non-IT areas would sabotage any efforts to establish alignment. This model is arranged about a series of key success drivers (the domains: human resources organisation and management/innovation and renewal strategy/IT/business architecture/IT/business partnership/operational excellence/ROI strategy management) which are operationalised in KPIs (key performance indicators) that each contain five contributory factors aspects designed to address explicit and significant questions within the KPI where it is included. The six domains are briefly explained below: Human resources organisation and management. In this domain reference is made to an organisations personnel and emphasis is given to the importance of workforce recruitment, retention and management by an organisation. Innovation and renewal strategy. The focus here is how innovative an organisation is with an emphasis on currency and validity having a bearing upon understanding when renewal is required to processes and capabilities in an organisation. IT/business architecture. This domain is concerned with the relationship and interaction of entities involved in the information and applications in the business environment of an organisation. IT/business partnership. This domain reflects how the recent upgrading of the role of the IT function affects an organisation â€Å"Technology is critical to business success and this co-dependency drives the need for the IT and non-IT executives to pursue a win/win relationship Duffy (2003, p. 4). Operational excellence. This domain deals with the performance outcomes of the organisation. Duffy recognises that operational excellence can only be achieved if an organisation can recognise the value of ideals embedded in learning and partnerships, and can respond to market demands promptly. ROI strategy and management. This domain investigates the importance of the metrics and processes required for efficient and effective financial management within organisations and accepting IT costs and benefits as having parity with business ones. Duffys six domains address the â€Å"IT and non-IT assertion as well as certain strategic elements within an organisation but there are no explicitly stated maturity levels for them. Instead, Duffy merges the six domains of the model into four BITA scenarios where organisations fall into the following categories: â€Å"uneasy alliance†, â€Å"supplier/consumer relationship†, â€Å"co-dependence/grudging respect†, and â€Å"united we succeed, divided we fail†. These laymans terms are loose at best and though intended to be descriptive only serve to confuse in their interpretation. Such scenarios are the maturity levels in the model. 2.5.2 LUFTMANS MM (2003) Luftmans model (2003) was constructed on the basis of practical experience and research into enablers and inhibitors of alignment (Luftman et al, 1999), incorporating reference to various other models [here listed chronologically and not in order of importance or influence]: Nolans stages of growth model (Nolan, 1979), SAM (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993) and CMMs (Capability Maturity Model) reach and range concept of (Keen, 1996). Luftmans MM is an endeavour based in six domains (skills/technology scope/partnership/governance/competency measurements/communications) to discover a specific organisations BITA profile. A brief description of each domain follows: Skills: addresses practical human resources issues such as cross-training in IT and business issues regarding the cultural environment and its impact on innovation and organisational change. Technology scope: refers to how much provision of comprehensible and flexible infrastructure comes from IT, the implementation of emergent technol